Primer: Grammar and Writing Handbook

Published: 28 Oct 2022
27 mins read

These are my personal notes on effective writing and English grammar. Over the years, the do’s and don’ts of sentence structuring, grammar, and verb conjugation have become fuzzy to me.

How do I know if a sentence is well-written? Or even grammatically correct? I “go-by-feel”, of course! Is this semi-colon appropriate here? Who cares, it looks about right; I’ve developed my own writing style over the years as well as a fair share of bad habits. This document is my attempt to be more deliberate in my writing and improve as a writer.

This was an incredibly laborious undertaking. As most of you can imagined, going through English and writing textbooks is a Chore. Nevertheless, I hope you will find this useful. If anything, chapter 5 and 6 are worth a read!

1.0 Parts of Speech

3.1 Basic Parts of Speech

  • Noun - people, place, things, concepts
  • Verb - expresses an action
  • Adjective - describes a noun
  • Adverb - modifies a verb and sometimes other parts of a sentence
    • far too, quickly, gratefully, very
  • Preposition - describes position of noun and pronoun
    • from, of, to, like
  • Conjunctions - joins words or phrases
    • Therefore, and, hereafter, as a result, if
  • Interjections - words that express emotion
    • Darn! Damn! Ops!
  • Articles - words that accompany and quantify nouns
    • The, a, an
  • Pronouns - used in place of nouns
    • I, he, who, she, her, you

3.2 Nouns

Figure 1: Types of Nouns

3.3 Articles

  • Indefinite article => “A, an”
  • Definite article => “The”

3.4 Pronouns

Figure 2: Types of Pronouns

  • Demonstrative – those, that, these
  • Interrogative – who, whatever, whenever
  • Relative – who, which, what
  • Reflexive – myself, yourself, himself, herself
  • Intensive – Same as above but used for emphasis:
    • I, myself hate this test
  • Reciprocal – each other, one another
  • Indefinite – someone, anyone, anything, everybody

3.5 Verbs

Action vs. Linking:

  • Action - most common (e.g. I hit tennis balls)
  • Linking - describes a state of being (e.g. The house smells nice)

Transitive vs. Intransitive:

  • Transitive - points to an object (e.g. Peter hates math)
  • Intransitive - does not require an object (e.g. Peter sings)

Regular vs. Irregular:

  • Regular - has regular conjugation (e.g. love, loves, loved)
  • Irregular - has irregular conjugation (e.g. am, are, is)

Main vs. Auxiliary:

  • Main - self explanatory
  • Auxiliary - used as helping verb (e.g. He had scorned the poet. “Had” is the auxiliary verb, “scorned” is the main verb.)
  • Modal - special type of auxiliary verb used with present tense of another verb to express “modality” or states. Modalities include possibility, ability, prohibition, necessity, and etc. (e.g. can, could, may, might, should, shall, will, would, must, have)
    • Obligation - “you SHOULD clean your room”
    • Possibility - “I MIGHT have a question for you later”
    • ability - “You CAN speak now”
    • prohibition - “You MAY leave now”

3.6 Adjectives

Figure 3: Types of Adjectives

3.7 Adverbs

Adverbs not only modify verbs, they may also modify other aspect of a sentence.

Figure 4: Types of Adverbs

  • Comparative adverb - (e.g. more, faster, brighter)
  • Superlative adverb - (e.g. most, fastest, brightest)

3.8 Preposition

Describes position of nouns or pronouns. (e.g. and, about, above, after, by, of, off, out, over, regarding, upon, towards, as, at)

3.9 Conjunction

Words that allow for smoother sentence transition.

Figure 5: Types of Conjunction

Conjunctive adverbs are used to connect two separate clauses. They can be used in three ways:

  • Connecting two independent clauses to form a compound sentence (use semi-colon and comma)
    • “I have a headache; therefore, I need a break.”
    • “I wanted another sandwich; however, the restaurant had none left.”
  • Beginning of a sentence
    • “Many students did not study for the test. Now, they are facing the consequences.”
    • “In conclusion, the tooth fairy does not exist.”
  • Used to add pause and interrupt a phrase (avoid… Prefer concision)
    • “He was determined, nevertheless, to go there”

Other examples of conjunctive adverb

  • Accordingly, consequently, furthermore, however, instead, likewise, nevertheless, otherwise, subsequently, moreover

2.0 Verb Conjugation

Verbs are conjugated based on their tense, person, number, mood, and voice. It can be quite a complicated subject! For most people with native English fluency, verb conjugation comes from experience. It is difficult if not impossible to mechanically memorize all the exceptions.

2.1 Verb Conjugation Based on Person

  • Verb conjugation based on person (first-person, second-person, or third-person) or number (singular vs. plural)

Figure 6: Verb Conjugation Based on Person

2.2 Verb Conjugation Based on Tense

  • Verb conjugation can also depend on tense (i.e. when something is happening - future, present, past)

Figure 7: Verb Conjugation Based on Tense

  • The examples shown in the figures above are verbs with Regular conjugation. The topic of irregular verbs is best learned with experience (too many exceptions…)
  • Furthermore, the condition of use tabulated above is just one of many! See below for more detail on each.

TO EXPRESS A CURRENT EVENT:

Present Simple - General Truth

Present Progressive - Ongoing event right this moment

TO EXPRESS A PAST EVENT:

Past Simple - Completed action in time before now

Present Perfect - Started in the past, still true now

Past Perfect - Past action related to another past action

Past Perfect Progressive - Reporting speech/tone

Future Perfect Progressive - Project your POV into the future, looking back

Past Progressive - An action when another past event happened

Present Perfect Progressive - Started in the past and is ongoing

TO EXPRESS A FUTURE EVENT:

Future Simple - Used for future event with certainty

Future Perfect - Completed event from future POV

Future Progressive - Continuous action in progress but from future POV

MORE EXAMPLES:

2.3 Verb Conjugation Based on Voice

  • Verb conjugation based on voice:
    • Active Voice: customers found the staff helpful
    • Passive Voice: the wait staff was found to be helpful

2.3 Verb Conjugation Based on Mood

  • Indicative Mood – common events that are real
    • “He who laughs last laughs best”
  • Imperative Mood – Instructional, subject is left out, but it is understood to be you
    • “Do not go beyond the dotted line”
  • Subjunctive Mood – express hypothetical situation or things contrary to fact, wishes, requirements, and speculations
    • “If I were you, I would learn to laugh at myself”
    • “It is necessary that you be in attendance”

2.4 Other Notes

  • What is the difference between present perfect vs. present perfect progressive?
    • Often can be used interchangeably without change in meaning
      • “They have lived in London since 2004”
      • “They have been living in London since 2004”
    • present perfect progressive can emphasize length of time
      • “They have been waiting for hours!”
      • “They have waited for hours (not much emphasis)”

3.0 Parts of Sentences

3.1 Subject and Object

  1. Subject - the active side that does the GIVES
  2. Verb
  3. Object (not always) - the passive side that RECEIVES
    • Direct object is the receiver of the action
    • Indirect object is related to the receiver of the action.

For example: “can you catch me a fish?”:

  • subject = you
  • verb = catch
  • direct object = fish
  • indirect object = me

3.2 Phrases and Clauses

  • Main clause - also known as an independent clause. Considered a full sentence
  • Subordinate clause – supporting the main clause, cannot exist by itself
  • Phrase – group of words that lack subject or verb, and does not form a sentence. They can be inserted within a sentence to flesh out meaning. For example:
    • Participial phrases
      • “(Exhausted), I lay on the grass”
      • “(Crying in the dark), I lamented the upcoming exam”
    • Appositive phrases
      • “Engineers, (otherwise known as designers), are going out of style.”

3.3 Sentence Structure

  • Simple Sentence – have only a main clause.
    • “She sings”
  • Compound Sentence – have two independent clauses that can stand on their own, but are connected instead to avoid choppy sentences
    • “Potatoes are healthy. Potato chips are not healthy.””
    • “Potatoes are healthy, but potatoes chips are not”
  • Complex Sentence – Made up of a main clause + a subordinating clause
    • “If you eat too much, you will not be able to walk”
    • “if you eat too much” is the subordinate; “you will not be able to walk” is the main clause

3.4 Point of View

  • First person – “I am grateful of the result. We will be expecting the next report tomorrow”
  • Second person – “You should open the box and insert the appropriate equipment in your bag”
  • Third person – “The team captain cheered on. The team members were captivated by his energy”

3.5 Active/Passive Voice

  • Active voice - sentence is structured such that it follows a logical progression (Subject acts on object) and thus is more understandable and preferred
    • “Bob mailed the letter.”
  • Passive voice - reverse of active voice. Where the object is “being acted upon”. Passive voice tends to be wordier
    • “The letter was mailed by Bob.”

When should you use passive voice then?

  • When the subject is not important or not known (sometimes omitted completely)
    • “The drawings were made in 1900.” (We don’t know by who)
    • “Walls will be installed” (we don’t care by who)
    • “Solution B was prepared for the burner.” (Obviously by me. Avoiding use of first-person in scientific papers)

3.6 Subjunctive Mood

Subjunctive mood is used to express demand, recommendation, requests, and conditions that are either contrary to fact or desired.

  • “If I were you, I would try to leave”
  • “It is crucial that I be at the interview on time”

Often used with the following structure: (Recommend that… Insist that… request that… require that… suggest that…)

  • “I recommend that he answer the question”
  • “The conference requires that all members be there”

4.0 Punctuation

4.1 Comma

  • Between two independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction:
    • I like cats, but I also like dogs
  • After an introductory subordinate phrase that comes before main subject and verb:
    • Whenever I feel sad, I go get myself an ice cream
  • Listing items:
    • Serial Comma: beef, chicken, beans and lamb
    • Oxford Comma: beef, chicken, beans, and lamb.
  • Transitional element
    • Frankly, I don’t care
    • To be honest, that is confusing
  • Short quotations - punctuation always goes before second quotation mark
    • “Answer the door,” Darlene yelled, “and tell him to go away!”
  • Date format
    • Wednesday, November 25, 1983
    • December 6, 2018

DO NOT USE COMMA FOR:

  • DO NOT use comma with coordinating adverbs. Use semi-colon instead
    • INCORRECT: (…), therefore, (…)
    • CORRECT: (…); therefore, (…)
    • INCORRECT: (…), however, (…)
    • CORRECT: (…); however, (…)
  • DO NOT insert a comma just because you would have paused for breath colloquially
    • “I am sure we will meet again, I know where you live” (Comma splice, replace with semi-colon)
    • “It was a gruesome, terrible, scene” (remove second comma)
    • “I am better at math now, (after months of practice)” (no comma before parenthesis)

4.2 Semicolon

The infamous semi-colon.

“Use a semi colon when the sentences are too strongly connected for a period, but the use of comma is also inadequate”

  • Connecting two or more main clauses
    • “I love broccoli; everyone else can’t stand it”
  • Use with conjunctive adverb
    • “I would love to join; however, I don’t know if it is a good option”

4.3 Colon

Used to introduce a list, a quotation, or an appositive phrase.

4.4 Apostrophe

  • Possessive
    • Normal - Molly’s
    • Singular noun ending in s - Walrus’s
    • Plural noun ending in s - Workers’
    • Compound subject - Bob and Joe’s
  • Contractions
    • e.g. Don’t, Doesn’t, class of ‘88
  • Plural of numbers, letters, etc.
    • X’s and O’s are embedded into the scarf
  • COMMON MISTAKE: Its vs. It’s
    • “Its” is a possessive pronoun
    • “It’s” can be broken down into “It is”
    • Tip is to break sentence down into “It is” and see which makes more sense

4.5 Quotation

  • Direction quotation: “I don’t give a damn!” Mark said loudly.
  • Use indent and new paragraph for long multi-lined quotation:

    “I have a dream, that (…)”

  • Emphasis for a single word
    • “I once displayed my ignored by using the word “irregardless””

4.6 Tips and Other Notes

  • Exclamation mark is self-explanatory. Do not over use exclamation mark
    • “Hi! I am Robert! I am very excited to meet you! How are you!?”
  • Dashes are used to indicate interruption in thought and flow of sentence, add additional information, or to introduce a list
    • “Sugar is everywhere – in our drinks, food, and even perfumes”
    • “Although they live closely together – living only a few minutes apart – they may as well be on different side of the globe”

5.0 Style And Writing Tips

5.1 Clear and Efficient Writing

Some tips for better writing:

  1. The fastest way to improve your writing is to remove redundant words:
    • “The bridge that people cross to get to Burlington is sort of rectangular in shape, and it is made of strong materials such as reinforced steel, and concrete, etc”
    • “The bridge to Burlington is rectangular and is made of strong materials.”
  2. Stop using filler words and inflated phrases (OK in colloquial speech. Avoid in writing)
    • ”Notwithstanding the fact that the manager is late, the meeting will still take place”
    • ”With that being said, let’s move on to the next topic”
    • Along the lines of = like
    • By virtue of the fact that = because
    • At this point in time = currently
    • As matter of fact = in fact
    • For the simple reason that = because
    • In spite of the fact that = although
    • In the event that = if
    • With regards to = about
  3. Always use active voice. Logic flows in one direction (See section 3.5)
    • “The entrance exam was failed by over one-third of the applicants”
    • “One third of the applicants failed the entrance exam”
  4. Avoid beginning sentences with “it, here, there”
    • “It is important that we know about his whereabouts”
    • “More importantly, we need to know his whereabouts”
  5. Avoid long or unnecessary separation between subject and verb. Prefer concision over style.
    • “Try , if you think you can, to see the effect of the drink”~~
    • “try to see the effect of the drink if you can”
  6. Avoid using idiomatic, local sayings, figure of speech, and clichés in your writing
    • “He seems to have hit the nail on the head”
    • “He is exactly right”
  7. Use more conjunctions and linking phrases for better flow
    • However, Consequently, Moreover, etc…
  8. Be specific when using relative pronouns (he, she, it, which, that, this). Avoid ambiguity
    • “Bob and Joe both went to boarding school, he studied Law there.”
    • “Bob and Joe both went to boarding school. Bob studied Law whereas Joe studied Chemistry.”
  9. Keep verb tenses consistent
    • “We were two minutes away from home when the sky turns dark”
    • “We were two minutes away from home when the sky turned dark”
    • “We are two minutes away from home. We need to be back before the sky turns dark”
  10. Avoid badly placed modifier phrases
    • “I shot an elephant in my pajama”
    • “The store clerk brought the ice cream to the young boy covered in chocolate sauce”
  11. Make verbs stronger
    • “The accumulation of garbage carried on for days”
    • “Garbage accumulated for days”
  12. Do not overuse sentences with format: (vary rhythm and sentence structure)
    • …is when…
    • …is where…
    • The reason… is because…
  13. Avoid instances where you have to use “his/her”, “she/he”, “her/him”. Rewrite sentence instead
    • “The engineer must exercise his/her best judgement”
    • “Engineers must exercise their best judgement”
  14. Do not use double negatives, rephrase your sentence
    • ”I don’t disagree with his comment”
    • “I agree”

5.2 Readability

There are several things you can do to improve readability

  • Write and organize an outline first. In other words, “set up the skeleton, then fill in the meat”
  • Keep writing short and concise. Get rid of filler words and colloquial speech
  • Use active voice
  • Reduce noise and distraction in your writing
    • Basic grammar, punctuation, spelling mistakes
    • Wordiness which results in lack of emphasis
    • Poor choice of word
    • Not considering technical capacity of reader

5.3 Choppy Sentences

Avoid choppy sentences with use of coordinating words, phrases, and conjunctions ( and, yet, but, however, moreover, therefore, as a result, to the extent, and etc.). Here are some examples:

  • “The basketball team huddled on the sidelines. The players were drenched in sweat. They looked dejected”
  • REVISED: “The basketball team – dejected and drenched in sweat – huddled on the sidelines”
  • –
  • “John was my adult literacy student. John was fighting a valiant battle against multiple sclerosis”
  • REVISED: “John, an adult literacy student of mine, was fighting a valiant battle against multiple sclerosis”
  • –
  • “Tyler called lightning a “flying flame.” Lightning travels at between 100 000 and 300 000 kilometers per second. Lightning reaches temperature of 24 000 to 28 000 degrees Celsius. It kills 20 people each day”
  • REVISED: “Lightning, which Tyler calls a “flying flame”, can travel at between 100 000 and 300 000 kilometers per second and reach temperature of 24 000 to 28 000 degrees Celsius. It kills 20 people each day”
  • –
  • “The marathon swimmer was coasted with grease, and she listed as she made her way to the shore. She seemed a symbol of determination”
  • REVISED: “The marathon swimmer listed as she made her way to the shore. Coated in grease, she seemed a symbol of determination”

5.4 Parallelism

Identical flow and structure when listing a series of items.

  • “Being outdoors, feeling the wind, and to smell the ocean is nice.”
  • REVISED: “Being outdoors, feeling the wind, and smelling the ocean is nice.”

5.5 Needed Words

Although concision is great, some words cannot be deleted!

  • Parallel structure
    • “I have and will continue to support him”
    • REVISED: “I have supported and will continue to support him”
    • “I gave him more soup than you”
    • REVISED: “I gave him more soup than I gave to you”

6.0 Common Sentence Errors

6.1 Sentence Fragments

Fragments lack main verb or subject. It leaves reader with a fragment of thought. The most common type of fragment is one that begins with subordinating clause.

  • The ones missing verb and subject are easy to catch
    • “Although we had a good time.”
  • Fixing sentence fragments is usually just a matter of eliminating punctuation, or dividing into two thoughts.
    • “John’s novels are widely celebrated. Because he is good at writing”
    • “John’s novels are widely celebrated because he is good at writing”
    • “John’s novels are widely celebrated. He is a good writer”
  • Another example:
    • “The library has many resources. For everyone to use.”
    • “The library has many resources for everyone to use.”
    • “The library has many resources. They are available for everyone to use.”

6.2 Comma Splice

When the writer joins two independent clauses with a comma instead of a period. If a sentence can stand on its own, you should probably use period.

There are four ways to fix a comma splice:

“I gave up watching TV, I started surfing the web.”

  • Use comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet)
    • “I gave up watching TV, but I started surfing the web.”
  • Use a semi colon or other acceptable punctuation
    • “I gave up watching TV; instead, I started surfing the web.”
  • Make the first sentence a subordinate clause
    • “Even though I gave up watching TV, I started surfing the web”
  • Simply separate into two sentences
    • “I gave up watching TV. I started surfing the web.”

The opposite of a comma splice is called a run-on sentence, where two independent clauses are joined together with no punctuation. These mistakes are much easier to detect and fix.

“I love movies I would watch one every day If i have the time.”

6.3 Subject-Verb Agreement

Similar to verb conjugation, subject-verb agreement is best learned sub-consciously through reading and speaking the language everyday until it becomes second nature. Incorrect subject-verb agreement should just “sound wrong” to you.

Here are the rules to follow:

  1. Verbs should agree with subjects. Two forms: singular and plural
    • I work, you work, she/he works, they work, you work
  2. Use plural form when subjects are joined by AND, unless it still refers to a single idea
    • “Bob and Grace were inseparable”
    • “Love and Hate” is a good movie
  3. Indefinite pronouns and collective nouns are considered singular even if they imply plurality
    • “Everybody knows one another”
    • “Everyone pays their own bill”
    • “The organization agrees that it needs a new member”
    • “each,” “each one,” “either,” “neither,” “everyone,” “everybody,” “anyone,” “anybody,” “nobody,” “somebody,” “someone,” and “no one”
  4. Countable nouns take a plural verb
    • “Locally produced goods have their advantages”
  5. Noncount nouns take singular verb
    • “Education is the key to success”
    • “The information is relevant to our study”
  6. When subjects are joined by OR, NOR, make verb agree with second part
    • “Neither the members nor the coach (he) knows about the result”
  7. Don’t be tricked by words or titles that look plural but are actually singular
    • “The piece of statistics was encouraging”
    • “Dog Days is an excellent movie”
  8. Clearly identify what the subject is if they are separated by other phrases
    • “The first ten minutes of the date are frightening”
      • Subject is first ten minutes, NOT date
    • Don’t be distracted by (who, which, that). Make sure verb agree with the antecedent

Here is a helpful trick: Identify the subject, then simply convert it to the corresponding person to see if the conjugation is correct

  • “The girls practice throwing, while the coach eats desert”
    • “The girls (they practice) throwing, while the coach (he eats) desert”
  • “His objective is to win. The coaches’ objectives are more complex”
    • “His objective (it is) to win. The coaches’ objectives (they are) more complex”

6.4 Pronoun Problems

Pay attention to pronoun antecedent agreement

  • The microbiologist adjusted his lenses
  • The members opened their books

Indefinite pronouns might become tricky as well as they sometimes sound plural, but is actually singular.

  • “When the airplane hit turbulence, everyone feared for their safety”

Two possible fixes:

  1. use his or her (not optimal)
    • “When the airplane hit turbulence, everyone feared for his or her safety”
  2. get rid of indefinite pronoun
    • “When the airplane hit turbulence, the passengers feared for their safety”

Appendix: My Own Notes

Simple Past vs. Present Perfect (went vs. have gone)

Simple Past – completed action in a time before now

  • I went to Florida (last week)

Present Perfect – precise time of action is in the past, but not exactly known

  • I have gone to Florida (I can’t remember when but that’s not important)

Whom vs. Who

Who = Subject = giving end (who interviewed Scott)

Whom = Object = receiving end (whom did the HR interview)

Examples:

  • We don’t know whom the president likes. (whom is object that president likes)
  • The car dealer only sells to customers who wants to attend (who is subject that wants to attend)
  • He is a candidate who, I believe, will do an excellent job (candidate is subject, so use who)
  • The woman whom we saw yesterday is running for mayor. (we saw woman that is running for mayor. Woman is the object)

Limiting Modifiers (only, even, not, around)

limiting modifier should be directly before the thing it modifies.

  • Incorrect: Bob only weighed 150 lbs
  • Correct: Bob weighted only 150 lbs

Dangling Modifiers

Do not omit subject even when it is strongly implied. Add for clarity

  • Incorrect: To win first place, a strong will is needed
  • Correct: To win first place, the contestants need a strong will

You and I vs. you and me

Preposition must be followed by nouns or pronouns in the object form

  • Incorrect: Between you and I, the deal is bad
  • Correct: Between you and me, the deal is bad

When adding the verb made, it is apparent that I must be in the subject form

  • Incorrect: Last year he made more money than me
  • Correct: Last year he made more money than I

Use of “Would”

  • Would - expresses a hypothesis in the past
    • I thought she would have visited me by now.
    • I would have bought tickets last week, if it weren’t so expensive
  • Would – is also used as a modal verb to indicate conditional mood
    • I would buy it, if tickets weren’t so expensive
  • Would – or subjunctive mood to soften what is being said
    • Would you pass me that book?
  • Would – or simply mean “used to”
    • He would go up and down the hill for hours

Direct vs. Indirect Question

Note how indirect questions do not have question marks. A more polite way to ask questions.

  • Direct: Where is the coffee mug?
  • Indirect: I was wondering if you know where the coffee mug is.

Title Capitalization

Consistent across AP, APA, MLA, etc:

  1. First and last word always capitalized regardless of type
  2. Nouns, verb, adverb, adjective always capitalized
  3. Articles always lowercase (the, a, an)
  4. Preposition (to, about, above, after, by, of, over, as, upon) - capitalize if four letters or more
  5. Conjunction (so, and, but, yet, after, if, while) - capitalize if four letters or more
  6. DO NOT CAPITALIZE second word after hyphen (Mid-year, Anti-hero)

Just remember not to capitalize:

  • articles (an, a, the) unless its the first or last word
  • coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for)
  • short preposition and conjunctions less than 4 letters (at, by, to)
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